【摘要】大多數(shù)篇章由段落組成,段落的寫作質(zhì)量直接影響篇章的整體寫作水平。掌握段落的寫作技巧與方法成為寫出高水平文章的關(guān)鍵。本文以分析段落的基本結(jié)構(gòu)為突破口,闡明了段落主題句、支撐句、結(jié)論句的寫作技巧,并以段落的完整性、統(tǒng)一性、連貫性三個基本特征為出發(fā)點,就如何把握段落基本特征、展開與組織段落做了深入研究。本文還討論了英語寫作中多樣化表達(dá)的方式。
【關(guān)鍵詞】段落寫作,段落擴(kuò)展,段落組織,寫作技巧,寫作
一、引言
寫作過程是一種綜合能力訓(xùn)練,它最能反映一個人綜合運用語言的能力,并直接體現(xiàn)寫作者的語言水平。寫好一篇高質(zhì)量的作文,除了詞句的使用、語法的掌握、語感的培養(yǎng)等,寫作技巧和寫作方法的掌握也起著重要作用。
段落(Paragraph)是構(gòu)成文章的基本單位,寫出高水平文章要從寫好段落開始。要想寫好段落,可以從段落結(jié)構(gòu)布局、段落組織與展開、詞句運用等幾個方面著手。
段落既是全文的組成部分,又自成一體,有相對獨立的主題思想。為了闡明主題思想,段落往往用一個句子概括主題,并置于段首,這就是主題句。段落中的其他句子都圍繞主題句展開,對其進(jìn)行敘述、說明或論證,這些就是支撐句。在段落結(jié)尾處,常需要對段落的主題作進(jìn)一步說明、強(qiáng)調(diào)或總結(jié)的句子,這就是結(jié)論句。主題句是整個段落的核心,支撐句是整個段落的主體。段落的基本結(jié)構(gòu)是“主題句+支撐句+結(jié)論句”。段落寫作首先是主題句、支撐句和結(jié)論句的寫作,這是英語段落寫作中的最基本要素。
段落的內(nèi)容要完整,主題要統(tǒng)一,邏輯要連貫,這是段落的三個基本特征。段落內(nèi)容要用細(xì)節(jié)闡明主題思想,以加強(qiáng)對主題信息的支撐,這就要展開段落。展開段落時要用一定的邏輯次序組織段落的內(nèi)容,以保證段落的連貫性。
在英文寫作中,單調(diào)的句式、多次重復(fù)的用詞往往使文章枯燥乏味。為了體現(xiàn)文章的活力,展現(xiàn)句美、詞美的感覺,靈活多變的句式、貼切的用詞是達(dá)到這一目標(biāo)的寫作手法(戴建萍,2010)。
二、主題句、支撐句、結(jié)論句的寫作
段落是一組句子的集合。段落必須表達(dá)完整的意思:如描寫事物,爭論某件事,駁斥某觀點,對某事提出疑問、提出要求或者給事物下定義。典型的段落由三部分組成:主題句、支撐句和結(jié)論句(May, 2009)。以下是一個典型的段落:
[段落示例1]The students in the class come from many different parts of the world.(主題句) Some are from European countries such as France, Spain and Italy. Others are from Middle Eastern countries like Saudi Arabia and Israel. Still other students were born in Asian countries including Japan and Korea. The largest number of students are from Latin American countries like Mexico, Venezuela, and Peru.(支撐句) The class is an interesting mixture of people from many different countries.(結(jié)論句)
該段的主題句、支撐句、結(jié)論句在文中用下劃線標(biāo)識。主題句用來闡明段落的主要思想,指出談?wù)摰脑掝}是什么,所有支持主題句的細(xì)節(jié)和描述都與這一主要思想有關(guān)。支撐句用原因或事例等細(xì)節(jié)對主題句予以解釋和說明,是段落的展開。結(jié)論句則可以用不同的措辭再次強(qiáng)調(diào)主題思想或回答主題句的隱含問題,有著首尾呼應(yīng)的作用和畫龍點睛的效果(Driscoll & Brizee, 2010)。
1. 主題句的寫作方法
主題句一般居于段首,通常在提供信息或解釋觀點的段落中使用。讀者通過瀏覽主題句就可以了解段落的概要。主題句應(yīng)是合乎語法規(guī)則的完整句子,以肯定句為主,同時需要限制詞對主題加以限定或約束。為了準(zhǔn)確表達(dá)觀點,好的主題句需要使用關(guān)鍵詞或詞組。主題需要有可寫性,不能太籠統(tǒng),也不能太具體。例如:
The three causes of the American Financial Crisis.
分析:該句不完整,缺少成分,不合乎語法規(guī)則,不能作主題句。
There were three causes that led to the American Financial Crisis.
分析:該句完整,成分齊全,是很好的主題句。
Riding in a bus is more convenient than driving a car for at least three reasons.
分析:這個段落主題要求寫 riding in a bus(topic),要把 driving a car(aspect)和riding in a bus(aspect)作比較,陳述原因(reasons)。由此可見,作者在aspect(方面)和reason(原因)兩方面來限制主題。
In the story Soldier's Home, Krebs tells his mother he wants no part of God's Kingdom.
分析:這個主題句過于具體,無法展開段落。
In the story Soldier's Home, Krebs is a lonely, cynical veteran.
分析:這個句子可作為主題句,接下來可以圍繞 lonely和cynical展開段落。
Let me tell you something about overpopulation.
分析:這個句子作為一個段落的主題句過于籠統(tǒng)。
Why has the world's population been increasing rapidly in the last decades?
分析:這個句子是個很好的主題句,作者從cause和time兩方面限制了主題,能在一個段落內(nèi)展開論述。
2. 支撐句的寫作方法
段落寫作的第一步是寫主題句,第二步是寫支撐句。例如,針對“陳述你將生活在郊區(qū)的理由”這樣的寫作命題,第一步是寫出主題句,如:There are several reasons why I will live in the suburbs next year. 第二步則列舉數(shù)個理由展開主題。
[段落示例2]
① There are two main reasons why I have decided to live in the suburbs next year. ②First of all,there is a transportation problem. ③My company will move to the suburbs. Because there are fewer public transportation lines connecting to the suburbs, I have to live near my office. ④Since my car was damaged, and I do not have money to buy a new one to commute to work, it is very inconvenient for me to live in the city. ⑤The second reason is that the suburbs are an amazing place to reside in, ⑥because there are fewer people there and it is quieter and not as crowded. ⑦The air there is not polluted and fresher, which is beneficial to my health.
主題句:two main reasons(句①)
理由1:transportation problem(句②)
● office move(句③)
● no car(句④)
理由2:an amazing place(句⑤)
● fewer people and not crowded(句⑥)
● fresher and cleaner(句⑦)
作者就兩個主要理由用更具體的細(xì)節(jié)支持主題句?梢,段落的展開依賴于支持主題句的細(xì)節(jié)。如何展開段落在本文第四部分有詳細(xì)論述。
3. 結(jié)論句的寫作方法
結(jié)論句通常與主題句一樣包含段落中心思想,然而所用措辭和表達(dá)方式與主題句不同。
在段落示例1中,主題句是:The students in the class come from many different parts of the world. 結(jié)論句是:The class is an interesting mixture of people from many different countries. 主題句和結(jié)論句在關(guān)鍵措辭和表達(dá)方式上進(jìn)行了轉(zhuǎn)換,但表達(dá)的實質(zhì)意思是一樣的。
在寫結(jié)論句時,首先要把握主題句的關(guān)鍵詞。例如,在段落示例1中,中心思想是the students come from different parts of the world,關(guān)鍵詞是students、different parts、world。其次要總結(jié)細(xì)節(jié),回答主題句中隱含的問題。在有些段落中,主題句隱含某些問題,隱含的問題通過支撐句論述或說明,結(jié)論句就是總結(jié)細(xì)節(jié),回答隱含問題。最后要用與主題句不同的措辭表達(dá)同一中心思想。
在段落示例1中,主題句的關(guān)鍵詞是students、different parts 和world;而在結(jié)論句中,關(guān)鍵詞是people、mixture、different countries,將students用people替代,different parts of the world用different countries替代,但表達(dá)的中心思想一致。
[段落示例3]
My hometown has changed greatly. When I last visited here, about half the houses had been torn down to make way for a highway. The remaining buildings were plastered with billboards and surrounded by traffic signs and litter. Now it has become dirty, noisy and full of cars.
主題句:My hometown has changed greatly.
主題句關(guān)鍵詞:changed
主題句隱含的問題:How has the hometown changed?
細(xì)節(jié):
(1)a highway built — noisy and full of cars
(2)full of billboards,traffic signs and litter — dirty
結(jié)論句:Now it has become dirty,noisy and full of cars.
結(jié)論句關(guān)鍵詞:dirty, noisy, full of cars
本段落中的結(jié)論句總結(jié)了細(xì)節(jié),并回答了主題句中隱含的問題。
三、如何把握段落的基本特征
主題句、支撐句、結(jié)論句是段落寫作的最基本要素。此外,還要在宏觀層面上保證段落內(nèi)容的完整性、主題的統(tǒng)一性、邏輯的連貫性,把握好段落的這三個基本特征(Driscoll & Brizee, 2010)。如果抓住了段落的三個基本特征,段落成文之后就會骨架優(yōu)美,形象清晰,整體感強(qiáng)烈。
1. 段落的完整性
段落的完整性指的是段落展開充分。主題句一旦確定,就應(yīng)該展開論述,細(xì)節(jié)越充足越好,可以使用給出數(shù)字、列舉例子、進(jìn)行描繪等方法來展開段落。
[段落示例4]
Ever since the advent of a computer, it has played an important role in people's lives. The computer used in the Manhattan Project led to the successful creation of the atomic bomb ①in the 1940s. Computers were also applied to the process control of products and scientific calculation ②from the 1950s to 1970s. Scientists employed a number of computers in the simulation of power plants and weather forecasts ③at the beginning of the 1980s.、躈owadays, computers have become a moving office along with the Internet and phones so people can work using them anywhere, anytime.
主題句:Ever since the advent of a computer, it has played an important role in people's lives.
細(xì)節(jié):① in the 1940s ② from the 1950s to 1970s ③ at the beginning of the 1980s ④ nowadays
本段按照時間順序提供細(xì)節(jié),舉例說明計算機(jī)在人類生活的各個時期發(fā)揮的重要作用。
2. 段落的統(tǒng)一性
段落的統(tǒng)一性是指主題思想貫穿整個段落。段落中的每個細(xì)節(jié)都應(yīng)支持主題句。為了支持主題句,要盡可能多地提供細(xì)節(jié),但要避免濫用細(xì)節(jié)。
[段落示例5]
① The capital city of a country is usually a very important city. ②Government offices are located in the capital city and political leaders often live there or nearby. ③There are many different types of governments in the world. ④The capital may also be the center of culture. There are always museums, libraries, and universities in the capital. ⑤Finally, the capital city can serve as a center of trade, industry and commerce, so it is often the financial center of the country.
主題句:The capital city of a country is usually a very important city.(句①)
細(xì)節(jié):
(1)Government offices are located in the capital and political leaders often live there or nearby.(句②)
(2)The capital may also be the center of culture.(句④)
(3)... it is often the financial center of the country.(句⑤)
無關(guān)細(xì)節(jié):There are many different types of governments in the world.(句③)
顯然在這個段落中包含了一個無關(guān)細(xì)節(jié),沒有支持主題句,應(yīng)該將其刪去。
3. 段落的連貫性
段落的連貫性是指段落中的句子以清晰、符合邏輯的順序連接。連貫性能保證各個觀點之間以及觀點與主題句之間形成聯(lián)系。連貫性通過一致的時態(tài)、統(tǒng)一的邏輯順序以及連接成分得以保證。
(1)時態(tài)的一致性:在段落中,句子的時態(tài)要一致,如果隨意變換時態(tài),段落就不可能取得連貫性。對于一般類型文體,時態(tài)使用有章可循,如傳記通常用過去時,描述類文章通常用現(xiàn)在時。選用哪一種時態(tài)取決于作者處理材料的方式。
(2)邏輯順序的一致性:段落內(nèi)容的展開和組織都需要有邏輯性。組織段落常用的邏輯順序有時間順序、空間順序、重要性順序和熟悉度順序等。
① 時間順序法是段落組織中最簡單和最常見的方法,通常在敘述和過程分析類文章中使用。
在敘述和分析過程時,對發(fā)生、記錄的事件或步驟按照時間順序敘述。在確定寫作目的后,寫出主題句,再使用first、then、next等把細(xì)節(jié)連接起來。
② 空間順序法主要用于描述景物、場面、建筑等。對于按空間順序組織段落的作文,要事先確定描述場面的方式,如從左到右、從上到下、從遠(yuǎn)到近、從背景到前景、順時針、逆時針等空間順序。在描寫某次參觀時,可同時運用空間順序和時間順序,以增強(qiáng)段落內(nèi)部的連貫性。
③ 重要性順序法就是使用先主后次或先次后主的段落組織方法,前者先強(qiáng)調(diào)重要的觀點,然后列舉次要觀點;后者先列舉次要觀點,把重要的留到末尾。
④ 熟悉度順序法是按照讀者對細(xì)節(jié)的熟悉程度排列細(xì)節(jié),展開段落。通常先談?wù)撟x者比較熟悉的、具體的細(xì)節(jié),后談?wù)撟x者不大熟悉的細(xì)節(jié)。
在具體寫作段落的過程中,使用哪一種順序取決于作者的寫作目的和讀者對主題的熟悉程度。下面僅對以時間和空間順序組織段落的方法予以說明。
[段落示例6]
We enjoyed our visit to Dr Hassan's house, which is perched high up on a hill. Walking up the long driveway,we approached the huge bronze door. A butler was standing in the open doorway, ushering guests into the house. Going in, we passed the oak-panelled library and the formal dining room before we arrived at the ballroom, where the reception was being held. Under three sparkling chandeliers,more than a hundred people were enjoying champagne, hors d'oeuvres and good conversation.
該段落采用時間和空間順序?qū)懽魇址,按照參觀時間和空間順序描寫所見所聞,其時空順序為:driveway→door→house→library→dining room→ballroom。
(3)巧用連接成分:巧用連接詞,重復(fù)某些關(guān)鍵詞,可以增加段落的連貫性。連接詞和關(guān)鍵詞可以起粘著物的作用,把各部分連接起來,使句子間的關(guān)系更加清楚。連接成分主要有連接詞、代詞、重復(fù)的關(guān)鍵詞語。
[段落示例7]
①Until recently daydreaming was viewed as a waste of time. ② Or it was considered an unhealthy escape from real life and its duties. ③But now some people are taking a fresh look at daydreaming. ④And it may be that more people are suffering from a lack of daydreaming ⑤than are suffering from too much of it.
在段落示例7中,連接詞包括:①until recently、趏r、踒ut、躠nd、輙han。段落中重復(fù)的關(guān)鍵詞是daydreaming。②中的it和⑤中的it都代替的是daydreaming。
四、段落展開策略
段落展開是用細(xì)節(jié)對主題作說明、解釋和論述。展開段落是段落寫作的關(guān)鍵,常用的方法有:事實與數(shù)據(jù)法、舉例法、比較與對比法、分類法、因果法、敘述法、描述法以及過程分析法。限于篇幅,本文只討論事實與數(shù)據(jù)法、舉例法、比較與對比法、分類法四種段落展開手法。
1. 事實與數(shù)據(jù)法
事實是客觀存在且可被證實的事情,例如:“Water cannot fire.”以及“Oil and water do not mix.”是事實,兩者都可以通過實驗證明其真實性。但“Doing exercises can improve our health.”則見仁見智,它是一種看法。數(shù)據(jù)是以數(shù)字形式呈現(xiàn)的事實,用于給某一主題提供有意義的信息。
[段落示例8]
Use of the Internet has grown very quickly. In 1983, there were 562 computers connected to the Internet. By the turn of the century, there were 72.3 million computers in 247 countries online. Experts say that the Internet is now growing at a rate of approximately 40 percent a year. As time goes on, the Internet is becoming more and more popular.
段落示例8中的主題句為:Use of the Internet has grown very quickly. 本段落使用了數(shù)據(jù)法來論述主題,用很多數(shù)據(jù)說明Internet的使用快速增長。
在使用事實和數(shù)據(jù)時,切莫將事實與看法混為一談。在寫作中,要用事實支持自己的觀點。其次,不使用不相關(guān)的數(shù)據(jù)。如果為了增加觀點的可信度而使用不相關(guān)的數(shù)據(jù),即使這些數(shù)據(jù)是真實的,也會引起誤解。
2. 舉例法
舉例法也是展開段落的常用方法。舉例法有兩種形式,一是先陳述觀點,后舉出一個或多個例子闡明觀點;二是先舉一個例子,后轉(zhuǎn)入例子所要闡明的觀點。
[段落示例9]
The countryside is an amazing place to live in. First of all, there is a lot of fresh air in suburb areas. For example, not only are there few factories and cars to pollute the air, but also there are lots of trees to make breathing easier. Secondly, it is not crowded on the outskirts of a town. For instance, houses and buildings are spread out on vast areas of land. Finally, people are friendly outside of the cities. To illustrate, neighbours help one another with community cleaning. So, living away from the city is wonderful for various reasons.
段落示例9是典型的舉例法,先擺出觀點,再通過舉例來闡明觀點。用舉例法展開段落時,例子要恰當(dāng),要能夠支持自己的觀點,并要準(zhǔn)確闡明例子所支持的觀點。
3. 比較與對比法
比較與對比法也是段落展開常用的方法。比較方法和對比方法基本一致,不同的是比較方法強(qiáng)調(diào)兩事物如何相同,對比方法強(qiáng)調(diào)兩事物如何不同。
[段落示例10]
Life in the city is quite different from life in the suburbs. People living in the city are constantly exposed to the hustle and bustle of urban life. But life in the suburbs is generally quiet and casual and generally more low-key than it is in the city. If city dwellers want to see trees and grass, they must go to one of the public parks. On the other hand, the streets of many suburban communities are lined with trees and shrubs, and each house has its own grassy yard. A person living in the city is close to many sources of entertainment, but people living in suburban areas must go into the city for entertainment.
段落示例10主要采用對比法,對比都市生活與城郊生活。在具體寫作中,比較法和對比法可以同時使用。
在用比較或?qū)Ρ鹊姆椒ㄕ归_段落時,首先要確定比較或?qū)Ρ鹊幕c,一旦基點確定,就可以用逐項(item-to-item)比較或逐點(point-to-point)比較的方法展開段落。逐項比較針對被比較或?qū)Ρ鹊膬蓚特定事物,先敘述甲事物,再敘述乙事物。逐點比較重點放在兩事物的對應(yīng)特征上,先敘述每個事物的某一特征,再敘述每個事物的另一特征(May, 2009)。
4. 分類法
分類法是把一事物分成幾個類別,表明這些部分與整體的關(guān)系。在寫作時以總類開頭,然后列舉各個類別并對其作一些描述。
[段落示例11]
There are three classes of personnel at our college. The first class is the staff who are in charge of daily administration. These people work at the section in charge of scientific research and equipment, continuing education, teaching affairs and so on. The faculty classified as the second class include teachers and researchers who teach students or do research in different subjects. The last class is made up of employees who are hired to work in different departments as a supplement to our college personnel. They need to sign a labour contract every three years.
在段落示例11中,主題句為:There are three classes of personnel at our college. 分類詞為classes;列舉詞為:first、second、last;所分的類為:staff、faculty和employees。
寫分類段落必須遵循以下分類原則:
(1)對事物的分類遵循同一分類原則;
(2)所分的類別必須互不隸屬和關(guān)聯(lián);
(3)分類必須完整;
(4)根據(jù)對所分類別的熟悉程度排列順序;
(5)使用分類詞和列舉詞。
用分類法展開段落時先使用分類詞介紹概類,再使用列舉詞(如first、second、third)表明概類中的各分類。常用的分類詞有kind、type、group、thought、way、class、part、element、factor、aspect、division、characteristic、subdivision、reason、category等。
五、詞句多樣化的表達(dá)形式
一篇經(jīng)典優(yōu)質(zhì)的文章除了內(nèi)容豐富和組織嚴(yán)密外,詞匯和句型的運用起著重要作用。字詞準(zhǔn)確使用、句型結(jié)構(gòu)靈活多變及搭配合理均可以達(dá)到表達(dá)形式多樣化的效果,使文章生動有趣、充滿活力(胡湘華,2010)。
1. 使用近義詞或同義詞
在段落寫作中,多次重復(fù)使用一個詞會使文章變得單調(diào)乏味,巧妙地運用近義詞或同義詞,可使句子的表達(dá)形式發(fā)生變化,從而增強(qiáng)文章的可讀性。
例如,在段落示例9中,使用同義詞或近義詞的方法達(dá)到了表達(dá)方式多樣化的效果,如用 suburb、countryside、outskirts、outside of the cities等不同的詞表達(dá)相近的含義。本段主題句“The countryside is an amazing place to live in.”和結(jié)論句“So, living away from the city is wonderful for various reasons.”使用amazing和wonderful兩個意義相近的詞表達(dá)了同樣的意思。再者,可將主題句中的amazing用charming置換,結(jié)論句中的various用many替代,用詞多變,但句子表達(dá)的意思沒有改變。
為了使表達(dá)方式多樣化,名詞、動詞、副詞和形容詞都可以用它們的近義詞或同義詞來相互替代,有時名詞可用代詞替代。在段落示例10中,people living in the city、city dwellers、they、a person living in the city均表示城市居民,這些詞或短語用在不同的句子中。
英語中同義詞眾多,在表達(dá)時用意義相近的短語代替單詞也能體現(xiàn)作者的詞匯運用能力。例如:
I have made up my mind to study English. / I have decided to study English.
A piece of burning paper resulted in the big fire. / A piece of burning paper caused the big fire.
2. 使用分詞或分詞短語
分詞有過去分詞和現(xiàn)在分詞,分詞或分詞短語在句子中常作后置定語和狀語。現(xiàn)在分詞通常表示正在進(jìn)行的動作,過去分詞通常表示被動或完成的動作,它們的使用豐富了句子表達(dá)形式和內(nèi)容。例如:
The thick crowd is sluggish. It is flowing up and down this street. He is swallowed up in the crowd.
以上句子為簡短單句的羅列,通過合并句子和改寫成含有現(xiàn)在分詞短語作定語的長句能更有效地表達(dá)思想。句子可以作如下改寫:
He is swallowed up in the thick crowd flowing sluggishly up and down this street.
又如:The town was north of the Red River, and a tornado struck it, and it was practically demolished.
這組句子由三個句子組成并列句,表達(dá)方式單調(diào)乏味,累贅而不簡練。如果將相關(guān)句子改成包含過去分詞短語作定語形式的句子,表達(dá)形式會更為緊湊簡練,看起來更接近英語文風(fēng)。句子可以作如下改寫:
The town, located north of the Red River, was struck by a tornado and practically demolished.
再如:With the fire burning all night, she had a sound sleep.(現(xiàn)在分詞作狀語)
She gazed, her hands clasped to her breast. (過去分詞作狀語。)
分詞作狀語可修飾謂語動詞或整個句子,表示動作發(fā)生的時間、原因、條件、結(jié)果、讓步或伴隨的情況。通常句子主語與分詞的主語一致,否則需要在分詞前添加主語,構(gòu)成獨立主格結(jié)構(gòu)。
3. 使用名詞表達(dá)動詞意義
許多動詞都有對應(yīng)的名詞,如lose的名詞是loss,construct的名詞為construction。一般來說,在英文寫作中使用動詞對應(yīng)的名詞表達(dá)動詞的意義也能體現(xiàn)寫作者的寫作功底?梢栽诿~之前或之后加入定語修飾成分,從而使表達(dá)的信息更飽滿、更豐富。這種表達(dá)方式言簡意賅、形象生動。請看下面的例句:
His failure in the exam again made his mother very worried.(failure是名詞,動詞為fail。)
No one can enter the office without permission.(permission是名詞,permission與permit表達(dá)相同意思。)
4. 長句與短句交替使用
一般說來,短句結(jié)構(gòu)簡單,用詞少,信息容量小,簡明扼要,生動活潑;長句結(jié)構(gòu)復(fù)雜,用詞多,信息容量大,表達(dá)嚴(yán)密、細(xì)致、精確。從修辭效果看,短句節(jié)奏快而且簡潔靈活,生動形象;長句節(jié)奏慢,且細(xì)致嚴(yán)密。在英語表達(dá)中,如果只用短句或只用長句,語氣和節(jié)奏缺乏變化,就容易使人產(chǎn)生單調(diào)、乏味之感。只有長短句交錯使用,相映相襯,才能加強(qiáng)語言的藝術(shù)感染力,增強(qiáng)文章的表達(dá)效果(張旭瑾,2009)。
[段落示例12]
①We can imagine the beautiful surroundings. ②There are many trees along the streets. ③There is a clean river in the city. ④There are many fishes in the river. ⑤There are willow trees on one side. ⑥There are some stretches of grassland on the other side. ⑦ There are many flowers there.
段中七個句子均為短句,句型結(jié)構(gòu)單一,長短相同,十分單調(diào)。下面是修改后的段落:
① Just imagine the beautiful surroundings we can create if we make our cities greener. ② Green trees line the streets. ③ A clean river winds through the city,in which a lot of fishes abound. ④On one side stand rows of willow trees. ⑤ On the other side lies a stretch of grassland sprinkled with many yellow and red flowers.
改寫后的這段文字有長句①、③、⑤,也有短句②和④,一長一短,表現(xiàn)出抑揚頓挫的節(jié)奏感。不僅句子長短交叉,而且句型結(jié)構(gòu)變化也很大,使文章流暢自然,生動活潑。
5. 使用復(fù)合句
在段落中,使用大量堆砌的單句在一定程度上降低了表達(dá)效果,復(fù)合句可以將結(jié)構(gòu)松散的單句關(guān)聯(lián)起來,呈現(xiàn)簡潔、明了的表達(dá)效果。英語寫作常用的復(fù)合句包括定語從句、狀語從句、名詞性從句(練穩(wěn)山,2010)。例如:
定語從句:Mary is a girl in Class 1, who speaks English very fluently.
狀語從句:The boy was saved because the doctor arrived there before it was too late.
名詞性從句:His teacher didn't know why Xiao Ming was always late for school.
名詞性從句包括主語從句、表語從句、賓語從句和同位語從句等。
6. 巧用連接詞,豐富句型和表達(dá)方式
如果在寫作中過多使用so、and、then、but、or、however、yet等連接詞,非但達(dá)不到豐富表達(dá)方式的目的,反而使句子結(jié)構(gòu)松散。巧用連接詞不僅能夠豐富句型,而且還能夠把思想表達(dá)得更清楚,使語義更連貫,尤其是一些表示從屬關(guān)系的連接詞,如who、which、that、because、since、although、after、as、before、when、whenever、if、unless、as if等。例如:
The Mississippi River is one of the longest rivers in the world,and in spring it often overflows its banks,and the lives of many people are endangered.
上句用了and把三個分句并列起來,單調(diào)乏味。如果使用關(guān)系代詞which,就可以使句式更多樣,語義更連貫,語言更流暢。例如:The Mississippi River,which is one of the longest rivers in the world,often overflows its banks in spring, endangering the lives of many people.
在英文寫作中,要掌握一些常用的連接詞的使用,如表示羅列的first、then、finally、moreover等;表示時間順序的recently、at first、in the beginning等;表示轉(zhuǎn)折關(guān)系的but、however、though、otherwise等;表示并列關(guān)系的and、also、too、as well as等;表示因果關(guān)系的because、because of、as等;表示讓步關(guān)系的although、however、no matter how等;表示目的的so that、so as to等;表示強(qiáng)調(diào)的in fact、certainly、no doubt、obviously等;表示歸納概括的in a word、in short、in brief、as far as I know、in conclusion等。
此外還要掌握一些常用的句型,如in order to、in order that、would rather do ... than do、prefer doing ... to doing ...、not ... until、It is no use / good doing ...、It is ... that ...、so ... that ... 等。
六、結(jié)束語
以段落為中心的英文寫作技巧和方法可以延伸到篇章寫作。篇章是段落的集合,篇章在結(jié)構(gòu)上與段落是一致的。篇章的結(jié)構(gòu)可以說是段落結(jié)構(gòu)的擴(kuò)展。段落的寫作方法和手段同樣適用于篇章的寫作。
參考文獻(xiàn)
Blanchard, K. & Root, C. 2003. Ready to Write [M]. NY: Pearson Education.
Driscoll, D. L., & Brizee, A. 2010. Paragraphs and Paragraphing[EB/OL]. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
owl/resource/606/1/. Apr. 17, 2010.
May, C. A. 2009. Spotlight on Paragraph and Essay Skills (2nd Edition) [M]. Pearson Education.
陳安屏. 2010. 探究中學(xué)英語閱讀與寫作的整合[J]. 英語教師,(10): 64.
戴建萍. 2010. 淺析高中英語寫作教學(xué)[J]. 中學(xué)生英語·外語教學(xué)與研究,(6): 60-61.
胡湘華. 2010. 閱2010年高考英語作文,談如何提高書面表達(dá)能力[J]. 中學(xué)外語教與學(xué),(11): 55-57.
練穩(wěn)山. 2010. 英語句型轉(zhuǎn)換之二 —— 簡單句復(fù)合句轉(zhuǎn)換[J]. 中小學(xué)英語教學(xué)與研究,(11): 74-76.
張旭瑾. 2009. 淺談英語寫作中句式的多樣化[J]. 吉林省教育學(xué)院學(xué)報,25(4):149-150.
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